One influential behavioral approach to anxiety is O. Hobart Mowrer’s twofactor
theory. It uses the principles of Pavlovian learning—in which two
stimuli are presented, one after the other, and the response to the first
changes because of the response automatically elicited by the second stimulus—
and operant conditioning—learning in which a behavior increases or
decreases depending on whether the behavior is followed by reward or punishment—
to explain fear and phobic avoidance, respectively. Fear is acquired
through Pavlovian conditioning when a neutral object or situation is
paired with something painful or punishing. For example, involvement in
an automobile crash can result in a fear of driving. At this point, operant
learning principles take over to explain phobic avoidance. In operant learning,
any action that leads to a reward is likely to be repeated. The person who
is anxious about driving might avoid driving. Because this avoidance is rewarded
by reduced anxiety, the person is more likely to avoid driving in the
future. Continued avoidance makes it harder to get back behind the wheel
again.
Many problems were found with two-factor theory, and many modifications
have been made to it. Two problems will be discussed here to illustrate
these changes. First, the theory predicts that people will be likely to fear
things that are most often associated with pain. There are very few people in
modern society, however, who are phobic of electrical sockets and end tables,
even though almost everyone has received a shock from the former
and stubbed a toe on the latter. On the other hand, many people are afraid
of snakes and spiders, even if they have never been bitten by one. This has
been explained through the concept of preparedness: Human evolutionary
history has prepared people to learn that some things—such as reptiles, insects,
heights, darkness, and closed spaces—are dangerous. These things
are “easy” to learn to fear, and they account for a large proportion of phobias.
On the other hand, human evolutionary ancestors had no experience
with electric sockets or guns, so people today are not prepared to become
phobic of these objects, even though they cause much more pain in modern
society than do snakes or spiders.
Two-factor theory states that in order for something to cause fear, it must
be paired with a painful or punishing experience. People, however, sometimes
become phobic of objects or situations with which they have never had
a bad experience. Indeed, many people who have never seen a live snake are
afraid of snakes. Thus, there must be other ways in which fear is acquired.
One of these is vicarious transmission: Seeing someone act afraid of something
can lead to acquiring that fear. For example, whether an infant becomes
afraid of being in a high place depends on whether its mother is smiling
or has an expression of fear on her face. In an ingenious set of
experiments, Susan Mineka and her colleagues showed that vicarious transmission
of fear is influenced by preparedness. She showed that rhesus monkeys
that watched a videotape of other monkeys acting afraid of a snake became
afraid of snakes themselves. Monkeys that watched other monkeys act
afraid of rabbits, however, did not become afraid of rabbits because they
were not evolutionarily prepared to fear rabbits. Human beings also can acquire
fear by being told that something is dangerous. A child can learn to
avoid running in front of oncoming cars by being told not to do this by his or
her parents; he or she does not have to be hit by a car or watch someone get
hit in order to acquire this information.
these changes. First, the theory predicts that people will be likely to fear
things that are most often associated with pain. There are very few people in
modern society, however, who are phobic of electrical sockets and end tables,
even though almost everyone has received a shock from the former
and stubbed a toe on the latter. On the other hand, many people are afraid
of snakes and spiders, even if they have never been bitten by one. This has
been explained through the concept of preparedness: Human evolutionary
history has prepared people to learn that some things—such as reptiles, insects,
heights, darkness, and closed spaces—are dangerous. These things
are “easy” to learn to fear, and they account for a large proportion of phobias.
On the other hand, human evolutionary ancestors had no experience
with electric sockets or guns, so people today are not prepared to become
phobic of these objects, even though they cause much more pain in modern
society than do snakes or spiders.
Two-factor theory states that in order for something to cause fear, it must
be paired with a painful or punishing experience. People, however, sometimes
become phobic of objects or situations with which they have never had
a bad experience. Indeed, many people who have never seen a live snake are
afraid of snakes. Thus, there must be other ways in which fear is acquired.
One of these is vicarious transmission: Seeing someone act afraid of something
can lead to acquiring that fear. For example, whether an infant becomes
afraid of being in a high place depends on whether its mother is smiling
or has an expression of fear on her face. In an ingenious set of
experiments, Susan Mineka and her colleagues showed that vicarious transmission
of fear is influenced by preparedness. She showed that rhesus monkeys
that watched a videotape of other monkeys acting afraid of a snake became
afraid of snakes themselves. Monkeys that watched other monkeys act
afraid of rabbits, however, did not become afraid of rabbits because they
were not evolutionarily prepared to fear rabbits. Human beings also can acquire
fear by being told that something is dangerous. A child can learn to
avoid running in front of oncoming cars by being told not to do this by his or
her parents; he or she does not have to be hit by a car or watch someone get
hit in order to acquire this information.
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