In response to such concerns, the U.S. Congress amended the Animal Welfare
Act in 1985 so that it would cover laboratory animals as well as pets.
(Rats, mice, birds, and farm animals are specifically excluded.) Although
these regulations do not state specifically what experimental procedures
may or may not be done on laboratory animals, they do set standards for humane
housing, feeding, and transportation. Later amendments were added
in 1991 in an effort to protect the psychological well-being of nonhuman
primates.
In addition, the Animal Welfare Act requires that all research on warmblooded
animals (except those listed above) be approved by a committee
before it can be carried out. Each committee (called an Institutional Animal
Care and Use Committee, or IACUC) is composed of at least five members
and must include an animal researcher; a veterinarian; someone with an
area of expertise in a nonresearch area, such as a teacher, lawyer, or member
of the clergy; and someone who is unaffiliated with the institution where the
experimentation is being done who can speak for the local community. In
this way, those scientists who do animal experiments are held accountable
for justifying the appropriateness of their use of animals as research subjects.
The APA has its own set of ethical guidelines for psychologists conducting
experiments with animals. The APA guidelines are intended for use in addition
to all local, state, and federal laws that apply, including the AnimalWelfare
Act. In addition to being a bit more explicit in describing experimental
procedures that require special justification, the APA guidelines require psychologists
to have their experiments reviewed by local IACUCs and do not
explicitly exclude any animals. About 95 percent of the animals used in psychology
are rodents and birds (typically rats, mice, and pigeons), which are
currently not governed by the Animal Welfare Act. It seems likely that federal
regulations will change to include these animals at some point in the future,
and according to surveys, the majority of psychologists believe that
they should be. Finally, psychologists are encouraged to improve the living
environments of their animals and consider nonanimal alternatives for
their experiments whenever possible.
Alternatives to animal experimentation are becoming more widespread
as technology progresses. Computer modeling and bioassays (tests using biological
materials such as cell cultures) cannot replace animal experimentation
in the field of psychology, however, because computers and cell cultures
will never exhibit all the properties of mind that psychologists want to study.
At the same time, the use of animals as psychological research subjects will
never end the need for study of human subjects. While other animals may
age, mate, fight, and learn much as humans do, they will never speak, compose
symphonies, or run for office. Animal experimentation continues to
have an important, though limited, role in psychological research.
Sources for Further Study
Fox, Michael Allen. The Case for Animal Experimentation. Berkeley: University
of California Press, 1986. Although the author is philosophically in favor
of most animal experimentation, he gives a clear and thorough discussion
of the entire context of animal experimentation from both sides. Includes
sections on animal rights, similarities and differences between human
and nonhuman subjects, the role of methodological considerations
and replicability in scientific progress, and alternatives to animal testing.
The author specifically addresses some of the uglier behavioral studies on
animals, including some by Harry Harlow.
Gross, Charles G., and H. Philip Zeigler, eds. Motivation.Vol. 2 in Readings in
Physiological Psychology. New York: Harper & Row, 1969. Although there
are dozens of newer collections of articles in the area of physiological psychology,
this one does a particularly good job of covering the broad diversity
of topics in the field. In addition, all the work represented in this particular
collection came from animal studies. This or a similar collection
can be consulted for illustration of many specific methodologies used in
research with animals.
Miller, Neal E. “The Value of Behavioral Research on Animals.” American Psychologist
of most animal experimentation, he gives a clear and thorough discussion
of the entire context of animal experimentation from both sides. Includes
sections on animal rights, similarities and differences between human
and nonhuman subjects, the role of methodological considerations
and replicability in scientific progress, and alternatives to animal testing.
The author specifically addresses some of the uglier behavioral studies on
animals, including some by Harry Harlow.
Gross, Charles G., and H. Philip Zeigler, eds. Motivation.Vol. 2 in Readings in
Physiological Psychology. New York: Harper & Row, 1969. Although there
are dozens of newer collections of articles in the area of physiological psychology,
this one does a particularly good job of covering the broad diversity
of topics in the field. In addition, all the work represented in this particular
collection came from animal studies. This or a similar collection
can be consulted for illustration of many specific methodologies used in
research with animals.
Miller, Neal E. “The Value of Behavioral Research on Animals.” American Psychologist
Physiological Psychology. New York: Harper & Row, 1969. Although there
are dozens of newer collections of articles in the area of physiological psychology,
this one does a particularly good job of covering the broad diversity
of topics in the field. In addition, all the work represented in this particular
collection came from animal studies. This or a similar collection
can be consulted for illustration of many specific methodologies used in
research with animals.
Miller, Neal E. “The Value of Behavioral Research on Animals.” American Psychologist
are dozens of newer collections of articles in the area of physiological psychology,
this one does a particularly good job of covering the broad diversity
of topics in the field. In addition, all the work represented in this particular
collection came from animal studies. This or a similar collection
can be consulted for illustration of many specific methodologies used in
research with animals.
Miller, Neal E. “The Value of Behavioral Research on Animals.” American Psychologist
40 (April, 1985): 423-440. Good discussion of advances in the behavioral
sciences that came from animal studies, including studies on effects
of early experience on the brain and behavior, drug effects, eating
disorders, and diseases of aging. Also includes some discussion of applied
studies which benefit nonhuman species.
National Academy of Sciences and the Institute of Medicine. Committee on
the Use of Animals in Research. Science, Medicine, and Animals. Washington,
D.C.: National Academy Press, 1991. This thirty-page pamphlet answers
commonly asked questions about the use of animals in biomedical
research. Although not focusing specifically on psychology, it does address
research in psychomedical areas such as brain research and drug
addiction.
National Research Council. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.
Science, Medicine, and Animals. Washington,
D.C.: National Academy Press, 1991. This thirty-page pamphlet answers
commonly asked questions about the use of animals in biomedical
research. Although not focusing specifically on psychology, it does address
research in psychomedical areas such as brain research and drug
addiction.
National Research Council. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.
Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.
Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1996. The primary reference
on animal care and use for researchers, the Guide covers specific legal
regulations regarding institutional responsibilities; animal housing and
environment; veterinary care; and facility requirements. Also available
online at http://www.nap. edu/readingroom/books/labrats/
Psychologists for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. http://www.psyeta.org.
Informative page for this animal rights organization. Provides links to the
table of contents of the journals they publish as well as full-text access to
some articles.
Linda Mealey; updated by Linda R. Tennison
See also: Behaviorism; Conditioning; Emotions; Hunger; Imprinting; Instinct
Theory; Memory: Animal Research; Pavlovian Conditioning.
Behaviorism; Conditioning; Emotions; Hunger; Imprinting; Instinct
Theory; Memory: Animal Research; Pavlovian Conditioning.
The Case for Animal Experimentation. Berkeley: University
of California Press, 1986. Although the author is philosophically in favor
of most animal experimentation, he gives a clear and thorough discussion
of the entire context of animal experimentation from both sides. Includes
sections on animal rights, similarities and differences between human
and nonhuman subjects, the role of methodological considerations
and replicability in scientific progress, and alternatives to animal testing.
The author specifically addresses some of the uglier behavioral studies on
animals, including some by Harry Harlow.
Gross, Charles G., and H. Philip Zeigler, eds. Motivation.Vol. 2 in Readings in
Physiological Psychology. New York: Harper & Row, 1969. Although there
are dozens of newer collections of articles in the area of physiological psychology,
this one does a particularly good job of covering the broad diversity
of topics in the field. In addition, all the work represented in this particular
collection came from animal studies. This or a similar collection
can be consulted for illustration of many specific methodologies used in
research with animals.
Miller, Neal E. “The Value of Behavioral Research on Animals.” American Psychologist
of most animal experimentation, he gives a clear and thorough discussion
of the entire context of animal experimentation from both sides. Includes
sections on animal rights, similarities and differences between human
and nonhuman subjects, the role of methodological considerations
and replicability in scientific progress, and alternatives to animal testing.
The author specifically addresses some of the uglier behavioral studies on
animals, including some by Harry Harlow.
Gross, Charles G., and H. Philip Zeigler, eds. Motivation.Vol. 2 in Readings in
Physiological Psychology. New York: Harper & Row, 1969. Although there
are dozens of newer collections of articles in the area of physiological psychology,
this one does a particularly good job of covering the broad diversity
of topics in the field. In addition, all the work represented in this particular
collection came from animal studies. This or a similar collection
can be consulted for illustration of many specific methodologies used in
research with animals.
Miller, Neal E. “The Value of Behavioral Research on Animals.” American Psychologist
Physiological Psychology. New York: Harper & Row, 1969. Although there
are dozens of newer collections of articles in the area of physiological psychology,
this one does a particularly good job of covering the broad diversity
of topics in the field. In addition, all the work represented in this particular
collection came from animal studies. This or a similar collection
can be consulted for illustration of many specific methodologies used in
research with animals.
Miller, Neal E. “The Value of Behavioral Research on Animals.” American Psychologist
are dozens of newer collections of articles in the area of physiological psychology,
this one does a particularly good job of covering the broad diversity
of topics in the field. In addition, all the work represented in this particular
collection came from animal studies. This or a similar collection
can be consulted for illustration of many specific methodologies used in
research with animals.
Miller, Neal E. “The Value of Behavioral Research on Animals.” American Psychologist
40 (April, 1985): 423-440. Good discussion of advances in the behavioral
sciences that came from animal studies, including studies on effects
of early experience on the brain and behavior, drug effects, eating
disorders, and diseases of aging. Also includes some discussion of applied
studies which benefit nonhuman species.
National Academy of Sciences and the Institute of Medicine. Committee on
the Use of Animals in Research. Science, Medicine, and Animals. Washington,
D.C.: National Academy Press, 1991. This thirty-page pamphlet answers
commonly asked questions about the use of animals in biomedical
research. Although not focusing specifically on psychology, it does address
research in psychomedical areas such as brain research and drug
addiction.
National Research Council. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.
Science, Medicine, and Animals. Washington,
D.C.: National Academy Press, 1991. This thirty-page pamphlet answers
commonly asked questions about the use of animals in biomedical
research. Although not focusing specifically on psychology, it does address
research in psychomedical areas such as brain research and drug
addiction.
National Research Council. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.
Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.
Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1996. The primary reference
on animal care and use for researchers, the Guide covers specific legal
regulations regarding institutional responsibilities; animal housing and
environment; veterinary care; and facility requirements. Also available
online at http://www.nap. edu/readingroom/books/labrats/
Psychologists for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. http://www.psyeta.org.
Informative page for this animal rights organization. Provides links to the
table of contents of the journals they publish as well as full-text access to
some articles.
Linda Mealey; updated by Linda R. Tennison
See also: Behaviorism; Conditioning; Emotions; Hunger; Imprinting; Instinct
Theory; Memory: Animal Research; Pavlovian Conditioning.
Behaviorism; Conditioning; Emotions; Hunger; Imprinting; Instinct
Theory; Memory: Animal Research; Pavlovian Conditioning.
(Rats, mice, birds, and farm animals are specifically excluded.) Although
these regulations do not state specifically what experimental procedures
may or may not be done on laboratory animals, they do set standards for humane
housing, feeding, and transportation. Later amendments were added
in 1991 in an effort to protect the psychological well-being of nonhuman
primates.
In addition, the Animal Welfare Act requires that all research on warmblooded
animals (except those listed above) be approved by a committee
before it can be carried out. Each committee (called an Institutional Animal
Care and Use Committee, or IACUC) is composed of at least five members
and must include an animal researcher; a veterinarian; someone with an
area of expertise in a nonresearch area, such as a teacher, lawyer, or member
of the clergy; and someone who is unaffiliated with the institution where the
experimentation is being done who can speak for the local community. In
this way, those scientists who do animal experiments are held accountable
for justifying the appropriateness of their use of animals as research subjects.
The APA has its own set of ethical guidelines for psychologists conducting
experiments with animals. The APA guidelines are intended for use in addition
to all local, state, and federal laws that apply, including the AnimalWelfare
Act. In addition to being a bit more explicit in describing experimental
procedures that require special justification, the APA guidelines require psychologists
to have their experiments reviewed by local IACUCs and do not
explicitly exclude any animals. About 95 percent of the animals used in psychology
are rodents and birds (typically rats, mice, and pigeons), which are
currently not governed by the Animal Welfare Act. It seems likely that federal
regulations will change to include these animals at some point in the future,
and according to surveys, the majority of psychologists believe that
they should be. Finally, psychologists are encouraged to improve the living
environments of their animals and consider nonanimal alternatives for
their experiments whenever possible.
Alternatives to animal experimentation are becoming more widespread
as technology progresses. Computer modeling and bioassays (tests using biological
materials such as cell cultures) cannot replace animal experimentation
in the field of psychology, however, because computers and cell cultures
will never exhibit all the properties of mind that psychologists want to study.
At the same time, the use of animals as psychological research subjects will
never end the need for study of human subjects. While other animals may
age, mate, fight, and learn much as humans do, they will never speak, compose
symphonies, or run for office. Animal experimentation continues to
have an important, though limited, role in psychological research.
Sources for Further Study
Fox, Michael Allen. The Case for Animal Experimentation. Berkeley: University
of California Press, 1986. Although the author is philosophically in favor
of most animal experimentation, he gives a clear and thorough discussion
of the entire context of animal experimentation from both sides. Includes
sections on animal rights, similarities and differences between human
and nonhuman subjects, the role of methodological considerations
and replicability in scientific progress, and alternatives to animal testing.
The author specifically addresses some of the uglier behavioral studies on
animals, including some by Harry Harlow.
Gross, Charles G., and H. Philip Zeigler, eds. Motivation.Vol. 2 in Readings in
Physiological Psychology. New York: Harper & Row, 1969. Although there
are dozens of newer collections of articles in the area of physiological psychology,
this one does a particularly good job of covering the broad diversity
of topics in the field. In addition, all the work represented in this particular
collection came from animal studies. This or a similar collection
can be consulted for illustration of many specific methodologies used in
research with animals.
Miller, Neal E. “The Value of Behavioral Research on Animals.” American Psychologist
of most animal experimentation, he gives a clear and thorough discussion
of the entire context of animal experimentation from both sides. Includes
sections on animal rights, similarities and differences between human
and nonhuman subjects, the role of methodological considerations
and replicability in scientific progress, and alternatives to animal testing.
The author specifically addresses some of the uglier behavioral studies on
animals, including some by Harry Harlow.
Gross, Charles G., and H. Philip Zeigler, eds. Motivation.Vol. 2 in Readings in
Physiological Psychology. New York: Harper & Row, 1969. Although there
are dozens of newer collections of articles in the area of physiological psychology,
this one does a particularly good job of covering the broad diversity
of topics in the field. In addition, all the work represented in this particular
collection came from animal studies. This or a similar collection
can be consulted for illustration of many specific methodologies used in
research with animals.
Miller, Neal E. “The Value of Behavioral Research on Animals.” American Psychologist
Physiological Psychology. New York: Harper & Row, 1969. Although there
are dozens of newer collections of articles in the area of physiological psychology,
this one does a particularly good job of covering the broad diversity
of topics in the field. In addition, all the work represented in this particular
collection came from animal studies. This or a similar collection
can be consulted for illustration of many specific methodologies used in
research with animals.
Miller, Neal E. “The Value of Behavioral Research on Animals.” American Psychologist
are dozens of newer collections of articles in the area of physiological psychology,
this one does a particularly good job of covering the broad diversity
of topics in the field. In addition, all the work represented in this particular
collection came from animal studies. This or a similar collection
can be consulted for illustration of many specific methodologies used in
research with animals.
Miller, Neal E. “The Value of Behavioral Research on Animals.” American Psychologist
40 (April, 1985): 423-440. Good discussion of advances in the behavioral
sciences that came from animal studies, including studies on effects
of early experience on the brain and behavior, drug effects, eating
disorders, and diseases of aging. Also includes some discussion of applied
studies which benefit nonhuman species.
National Academy of Sciences and the Institute of Medicine. Committee on
the Use of Animals in Research. Science, Medicine, and Animals. Washington,
D.C.: National Academy Press, 1991. This thirty-page pamphlet answers
commonly asked questions about the use of animals in biomedical
research. Although not focusing specifically on psychology, it does address
research in psychomedical areas such as brain research and drug
addiction.
National Research Council. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.
Science, Medicine, and Animals. Washington,
D.C.: National Academy Press, 1991. This thirty-page pamphlet answers
commonly asked questions about the use of animals in biomedical
research. Although not focusing specifically on psychology, it does address
research in psychomedical areas such as brain research and drug
addiction.
National Research Council. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.
Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.
Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1996. The primary reference
on animal care and use for researchers, the Guide covers specific legal
regulations regarding institutional responsibilities; animal housing and
environment; veterinary care; and facility requirements. Also available
online at http://www.nap. edu/readingroom/books/labrats/
Psychologists for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. http://www.psyeta.org.
Informative page for this animal rights organization. Provides links to the
table of contents of the journals they publish as well as full-text access to
some articles.
Linda Mealey; updated by Linda R. Tennison
See also: Behaviorism; Conditioning; Emotions; Hunger; Imprinting; Instinct
Theory; Memory: Animal Research; Pavlovian Conditioning.
Behaviorism; Conditioning; Emotions; Hunger; Imprinting; Instinct
Theory; Memory: Animal Research; Pavlovian Conditioning.
The Case for Animal Experimentation. Berkeley: University
of California Press, 1986. Although the author is philosophically in favor
of most animal experimentation, he gives a clear and thorough discussion
of the entire context of animal experimentation from both sides. Includes
sections on animal rights, similarities and differences between human
and nonhuman subjects, the role of methodological considerations
and replicability in scientific progress, and alternatives to animal testing.
The author specifically addresses some of the uglier behavioral studies on
animals, including some by Harry Harlow.
Gross, Charles G., and H. Philip Zeigler, eds. Motivation.Vol. 2 in Readings in
Physiological Psychology. New York: Harper & Row, 1969. Although there
are dozens of newer collections of articles in the area of physiological psychology,
this one does a particularly good job of covering the broad diversity
of topics in the field. In addition, all the work represented in this particular
collection came from animal studies. This or a similar collection
can be consulted for illustration of many specific methodologies used in
research with animals.
Miller, Neal E. “The Value of Behavioral Research on Animals.” American Psychologist
of most animal experimentation, he gives a clear and thorough discussion
of the entire context of animal experimentation from both sides. Includes
sections on animal rights, similarities and differences between human
and nonhuman subjects, the role of methodological considerations
and replicability in scientific progress, and alternatives to animal testing.
The author specifically addresses some of the uglier behavioral studies on
animals, including some by Harry Harlow.
Gross, Charles G., and H. Philip Zeigler, eds. Motivation.Vol. 2 in Readings in
Physiological Psychology. New York: Harper & Row, 1969. Although there
are dozens of newer collections of articles in the area of physiological psychology,
this one does a particularly good job of covering the broad diversity
of topics in the field. In addition, all the work represented in this particular
collection came from animal studies. This or a similar collection
can be consulted for illustration of many specific methodologies used in
research with animals.
Miller, Neal E. “The Value of Behavioral Research on Animals.” American Psychologist
Physiological Psychology. New York: Harper & Row, 1969. Although there
are dozens of newer collections of articles in the area of physiological psychology,
this one does a particularly good job of covering the broad diversity
of topics in the field. In addition, all the work represented in this particular
collection came from animal studies. This or a similar collection
can be consulted for illustration of many specific methodologies used in
research with animals.
Miller, Neal E. “The Value of Behavioral Research on Animals.” American Psychologist
are dozens of newer collections of articles in the area of physiological psychology,
this one does a particularly good job of covering the broad diversity
of topics in the field. In addition, all the work represented in this particular
collection came from animal studies. This or a similar collection
can be consulted for illustration of many specific methodologies used in
research with animals.
Miller, Neal E. “The Value of Behavioral Research on Animals.” American Psychologist
40 (April, 1985): 423-440. Good discussion of advances in the behavioral
sciences that came from animal studies, including studies on effects
of early experience on the brain and behavior, drug effects, eating
disorders, and diseases of aging. Also includes some discussion of applied
studies which benefit nonhuman species.
National Academy of Sciences and the Institute of Medicine. Committee on
the Use of Animals in Research. Science, Medicine, and Animals. Washington,
D.C.: National Academy Press, 1991. This thirty-page pamphlet answers
commonly asked questions about the use of animals in biomedical
research. Although not focusing specifically on psychology, it does address
research in psychomedical areas such as brain research and drug
addiction.
National Research Council. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.
Science, Medicine, and Animals. Washington,
D.C.: National Academy Press, 1991. This thirty-page pamphlet answers
commonly asked questions about the use of animals in biomedical
research. Although not focusing specifically on psychology, it does address
research in psychomedical areas such as brain research and drug
addiction.
National Research Council. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.
Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.
Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1996. The primary reference
on animal care and use for researchers, the Guide covers specific legal
regulations regarding institutional responsibilities; animal housing and
environment; veterinary care; and facility requirements. Also available
online at http://www.nap. edu/readingroom/books/labrats/
Psychologists for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. http://www.psyeta.org.
Informative page for this animal rights organization. Provides links to the
table of contents of the journals they publish as well as full-text access to
some articles.
Linda Mealey; updated by Linda R. Tennison
See also: Behaviorism; Conditioning; Emotions; Hunger; Imprinting; Instinct
Theory; Memory: Animal Research; Pavlovian Conditioning.
Behaviorism; Conditioning; Emotions; Hunger; Imprinting; Instinct
Theory; Memory: Animal Research; Pavlovian Conditioning.
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