Impact and Criticisms

Freud was a unique, seminal thinker. His theory was controversial from its
inception. At the same time, however, it is such a powerful theory that, while
many have criticized it, no subsequent personality theorist has been able to
ignore the ideas Freud advanced. Psychoanalytic theory has also provided
an interpretive framework for literary critics, historians, philosophers, and
others.
Freud’s theory was a product of his personal history, his training in science
and medicine, and the Viennese culture in which he lived. Freud’s
early training was as a neurologist. As he turned from neurology to psychology,
he continued to apply the skills of careful observation to this new discipline
and to assume that the human mind followed natural laws that could
be discovered. Viennese society at the time of Freud was one of restrictive social
attitudes, particularly for women, and of covert practices that fell far
short of public ideals. Thus it was relatively easy to see the psychological
problems of the middle-class Viennese women who often were Freud’s patients
as being attributable to sexual conflicts.
Although Freud himself was dedicated to developing a science of mental
life, his methods are open to criticism on scientific grounds. His theory is
based upon his experiences as a therapist and his own self-analysis. His conclusions
may therefore be restricted to the particular people or time his work encompassed. He did not seek to corroborate what his patients told
him by checking with others outside the therapy room. Freud was not interested
in the external “truth” of a report as much as its inner psychological
meaning. He did not make details of his cases available to scrutiny, perhaps
because of confidentiality. Although he wrote extensively about his theory,
only five case histories were published. In all, these difficulties make the assessment
of Freudian theory in terms of traditional scientific criteria problematic.
Freud’s theory has had strong adherents as well as critics. Although theorists
such as Alfred Adler and Carl Jung eventually broke with Freud, arguing
against the primacy of the sexual instincts, his influence can be seen in
their theories. Similarly, the important work of Erik Erikson describing human
development through the life span has its roots in psychoanalytic theory.
Many modern psychoanalytic theorists place a greater emphasis on the
ego than did Freud, seeing it as commanding its own source of energy, independent
of and equal to the id. Much literature and social criticism also possess
a Freudian flavor.
Sources for Further Study
Freud, Sigmund. General Psychological Theory: Papers on Metapsychology. New
York: Macmillan, 1997. A collection of Freud’s papers about the practice
of psychoanalysis.
__________. An Outline of Psychoanalysis. Translated by Helena Ragg-Kirkby .
New York: Penguin Books, 2003. A brief introduction to Freudian theory.
Beginning students of Freud may find the tone too didactic and the treatment
too abbreviated; however, it is valuable when read in conjunction
with a good summary of Freud from a secondary source.
Gay, Peter. Freud: A Life for Our Time. 1988. Reprint. New York:W.W. Norton,
1998. Well-written biography of Freud places his work in historical and
psychological context. Accessible to the reader who may only have a passing
familiarity with Freudian theory.
__________, ed. The Freud Reader. Reprint. New York: W. W. Norton, 1995. A
well-edited volume of selections of Freud’s work. The Interpretation of
Dreams, Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of Hysteria (“Dora”), and Three Essays
on the Theory of Sexuality are particularly important in defining the basics
of Freud’s theory.
Hall, Calvin Springer, Gardner Lindzey, and John Campbell. “Freud’s Classical
Psychoanalytical Theory.” In Theories of Personality. 4th ed. New York:
JohnWiley & Sons, 1998. This chapter is the classic textbook summary of
Freud’s theory. Readable, thorough, and accurate. Also presents a brief
discussion of psychoanalytic research methods and criticisms of the theory.
Jones, Ernest. The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud. Edited and abridged by
Lionel Trilling and Steven Marcus.3 vols. New York: Basic Books, 1981.
Jones was a confidant of Freud and his official biographer. Interesting as
an insider’s account of Freud’s life.

Kardiner, Abram. My Analysis with Freud. New York: W. W. Norton, 1977.
Kardiner is a well-known analyst. This brief volume is a personal account
of his own analysis, with Freud as the therapist. A fascinating insider’s account
of Freudian analysis and the forces that shaped the psychoanalytic
movement.
Susan E. Beers
See also: Abnormality: Psychological Models; Dreams; Psychoanalysis; Psychoanalytic
Psychology; Psychotherapy: Goals and Techniques; Women’s
Psychology: Karen Horney; Women’s Psychology: Sigmund Freud. 662