Historical Background

Concern with helping behavior has its roots in early philosophy. Thinkers
such as Aristotle, Socrates, Niccolò Machiavelli, and Thomas Hobbes debated
whether humans are by nature good or bad, selfish or selfless. Most
empirical psychological research on the topic, however, was not initiated until
after the 1950’s. This was probably not coincidental. Many people were
concerned with the atrocities ofWorldWar II and, in the United States, with
rising crime rates. In response, psychologists not only began to investigate
human cruelty but also gave increased attention to what could be done to
offset it. Similarly, the emergence of the Civil Rights movement, with its emphasis
on cooperation and harmony, probably further propelled the study
of prosocial behavior. The term “prosocial behavior,” or behavior intended
to benefit other people, is sometimes used synonymously with “helping” and
is sometimes meant to be a larger category that includes helping.
Early studies of helping behavior examined situational variables that influence
the decision to help someone who is in physical distress. The arousal
cost-reward model and the subway experiment characterize this type of work.
Also important during this period were Alvin Gouldner’s theorizing on the
norm of reciprocity and subsequent empirical investigation of the norms
governing helping behavior, such as Leonard Berkowitz’s work in the 1960’s.
As social psychologists explored situational variables that influence helping,
developmental psychologists examined the emergence of positive social behavior
in children. Some, such as Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg, postulated
distinct stages of moral development. Others focused on how people
who model helping behavior influence children’s subsequent behavior.