Consciousness: Altered States

Consciousness: Altered States

Type of psychology: Consciousness
Field of study: Cognitive processes
The investigation of altered states of consciousness began in psychology with the recognition
that consciousness is not a fixed, unvarying state but is in a continual state of
flux. Consciousness can be altered by many chemical and nonchemical means, and
there is some evidence to indicate that certain altered states are necessary for normal
psychological functioning.

Key concepts

• biofeedback
• circadian rhythm
• electroencephalogram (EEG)
• hypnagogic and hypnopompic states
• hypnosis
• meditation
• psychoactive drugs
• restricted environmental stimulation (RES)

The great psychologist William James, in his 1890 textbook The Principles of
Psychology, made the following now-famous observation regarding states of
consciousness: “Our normal waking consciousness, rational consciousness
as we call it, is but one special type of consciousness, whilst all about it,
parted from it by the filmiest of screens, there lie potential forms of consciousness
entirely different.” James went on to say that the understanding
of human psychological functioning would never be complete until these alternate
states were addressed. Most psychologists would now acknowledge
that a person’s normal waking consciousness is readily subject to changes.
These changes are referred to as altered states of consciousness. What constitutes
a genuine altered state and how many such states may exist are both
subjects of some controversy.

States of consciousness have always been central to the attempt to understand
human nature. For example, every society of which any record exists
has possessed both chemical and nonchemical means of altering consciousness.
From a historical point of view, Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) may have
done more than any other theorist to stimulate interest in states of consciousness.
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality held that there
were three primary levels of consciousness: consciousness, preconsciousness,
and unconsciousness. The conscious level includes mental activities of
which one is unaware. The preconscious level consists of mental material of
which one is currently unaware but that can be voluntarily recalled—roughly
equivalent to memory. The unconscious level, which held the greatest interest
for Freud, contains thoughts, feelings, memories, and drives that are blocked from awareness because they are unpleasant or arouse anxiety. In addition
to his interest in these three levels of consciousness, Freud’s interest in
altered states at various points in his career was manifested in investigations of
cocaine, hypnosis, and the analysis and interpretation of dreams.

In the early twentieth century, with the growth of behaviorism (which insisted
that in order to be a science, psychology should confine itself to investigating
only objective, observable behavior), the study of altered states of
consciousness fell out of favor. Events in the larger culture during the 1960’s
and 1970’s, however, helped stimulate interest in altered states within psychology.
During this period, efforts to expand consciousness by means of
drugs, meditation, Eastern religious practice, and new ways of relating to
oneself and others led to the active study of altered states of consciousness.
The attempts of psychologists to study altered states of experience will perhaps
be viewed in the future as a landmark in the development of psychology
as a science. The willingness of psychology to explore the novel realms
that altered states represent may help to expand the understanding of both
consciousness and reality.