Biological Bases of Learning

The features of learning do not occur in a vacuum: They often produce lasting,
physiological changes in the organism. The search for the physical underpinnings
of learning has progressed from relatively basic reflexes in relatively
simple organisms to more complex behaviors in mammals. Beginning
in the 1960’s, Eric R. Kandel and his colleagues started to examine simple
learning in the large sea snail Aplysia. This snail was chosen as a model to
study physiological changes in learning because its nervous system is relatively
simple, containing several thousand neurons (nerve cells) compared
to the billions of neurons in mammals. The neurons are large, so researchers
can identify individual cells and monitor them for changes as learning
progresses. In this Nobel Prize-winning work, Kandel and colleagues outlined
many of the changes in the degree of responsiveness in connections
between neurons that underlie classical conditioning processes. The same
processes have been observed in other species, including mammals, and the
work continues to expand to more complex behavior. This research shows
the commonality in learning processes across species and emphasizes the
progress in understanding the physical basis that underlies learning.
Sources for Further Study
Branch, Marc N., and Timothy D. Hackenberg. “Humans Are Animals, Too:
Connecting Animal Research to Human Behavior and Cognition.” In
Learning and Behavior Therapy, edited by William O’Donohue. Boston:
Allyn & Bacon, 1998. The authors explain the relevance of work with
nonhumans to humans. Includes a discussion of the effects of explicit rewards
on motivation and the phenomenon of learning without awareness.
This book chapter is clearly written and understandable to the interested
nonprofessional reader.
Carroll, Marilyn E., and J. Bruce Overmier, eds. Animal Research and Human
Health: Advancing Human Welfare Through Behavioral Science. Washington,
D.C.: American Psychological Association, 2001. Contains descriptions of
the application of research with animals to a variety of human conditions,
including anxiety, stress, depression, drug abuse, aggression, and a variety
of areas of learning. Also contains a section on the ethics of using animals
in behavioral research and a list of additional readings.
Eisenberger, Robert, and Judy Cameron. “The Detrimental Effects of Reward:
Myth or Reality?” American Psychologist 51, no. 11 (1996): 1153-1166.
This journal article in the publication of the American Psychological Association
provides an analysis of over one hundred studies and finds that rewards generally are not detrimental, but are in fact beneficial, to motivation,
interest, and enjoyment of a task. Although the article contains
advanced statistical techniques, they are not critical to the understanding
of the findings.
Mazur, James E. Learning and Behavior. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice
Hall, 2001. This best-selling introduction to the topic of learning and
behavior assumes no prior knowledge of psychology. The reading is
straightforward though sometimes challenging as it covers the basics of
classical and operant conditioning, biological bases of learning and behavior,
and applications to complex human learning situations.
Overmier, J. Bruce, and V. M. LoLordo. “Learned Helplessness.” In Learning
and Behavior Therapy, edited by William O’Donohue. Boston: Allyn & Bacon,
1998. Scholarly, complete discussion of the history of research in
learned helplessness, thorough description of the phenomenon, up to
current controversies and debates in this area. Contains information on
the physiological underpinnings of learned helplessness and the application
of this research to human depression. Includes large reference section
with classic papers in this area of research.
Seligman, Martin E. P. Learned Optimism. New York: Pocket Books, 1998. This
book by one of the pioneers in the area describes the basic research underlying
the proposed therapeutic approach to address problems with
learned helplessness. Contains scales to assess the reader’s degree of optimism
and scientifically based recommendations to change problematic
behavior. Written for a broad audience.
Skinner, B. F. Science and Human Behavior. Reprint. New York: Classics of Psychiatry
& Behavioral Sciences Library, 1992. This classic work by Skinner
was designed to bring the study of human learning to a wide audience.
Describes the application of science to human problems. Reviews basic
learning principles before discussing their application to a variety of wide
ranging human issues.
Straus, Murray A., and Denise A. Donnelly. Beating the Devil out of Them: Corporal
Punishment in American Families and Its Effects on Children. New Brunswick,
N.J.: Transaction, 2001. This thought-provoking book by one of the
foremost experts on family violence is written for a broad audience. Discusses
the prevalence of spanking and other forms of corporal punishment.
Outlines the short-term and long-term impacts of spanking on
children, including increased aggression, criminality, and depression. Includes
a discussion of benefits of alternative child-rearing strategies.
Amy L. Odum
See also: Cognitive Development: Jean Piaget; Giftedness; Imprinting; Intelligence;
Language; Learning Disorders; Logic and Reasoning; Memory; Mental
Retardation; Pavlovian Conditioning; Race and Intelligence; Thought:
Study and Measurement.