• equity theory
• matching phenomenon
• mere exposure
• physical attractiveness stereotype
• proximity
• reciprocity
• reinforcement model
• social exchange theory
Relationships are central to human social existence. Personal accounts by
people who have been forced to endure long periods of isolation serve as reminders
of people’s dependence on others, and research suggests that close
relationships are the most vital ingredient in a happy and meaningful life. In
short, questions dealing with attraction are among the most fundamental in
social psychology.
The major theories addressing interpersonal attraction have a common
theme: reinforcement. The principle of reinforcement is one of the most
basic notions in all of psychology. Put simply, it states that behaviors that are
followed by desirable consequences (often these take the form of rewards)
tend to be repeated. Applied to interpersonal relations, this principle suggests
that when one person finds something rewarding in an interaction
with another person (or if that person anticipates some reward in a relationship
that has not yet been established), then the person should desire further
interaction with that other individual. In behavioral terms, this is what
is meant by the term “interpersonal attraction,” which emerges in everyday
language in such terms as “liking” or, in the case of deep involvement, “loving.”
Appropriately, these theories, based on the notion that individuals are
drawn to relationships that are rewarding and avoid those that are not, are
known as reinforcement or reward models of interpersonal attraction.
The first and most basic theory of this type was proposed in the early
1970’s by Donn Byrne and Gerald Clore. Known as the reinforcement-affect
model of attraction (“affect” means “feeling” or “emotion”), this theory proposes
that people will be attracted not only to other people who reward
them but also to those people whom they associate with rewards. In other
words, a person can learn to like others through their connections to experiences
that are positive for that individual. It is important to recognize that a
major implication here is that it is possible to like someone not so much because
of that person himself or herself but rather as a consequence of that
person’s merely being part of a rewarding situation; positive feelings toward
the experience itself get transferred to that other person. (It also follows
that a person associated with something unpleasant will tend to be disliked.)
This is called indirect reinforcement.
For example, in one experiment done during the summer, people who
evaluated new acquaintances in a cool and comfortable room liked them
better than when in a hot and uncomfortable room. In another, similar,
study subjects rating photographs of strangers gave more favorable evaluations
when in a nicely furnished room than when they were in a dirty room
with shabby furniture. These findings provide some insight into why married
couples may find that their relationship benefits from a weekend trip
away from the children or a romantic dinner at a favorite restaurant; the
pleasant event enhances their feelings for each other.
There are other models of interpersonal attraction that involve the notion
of rewards but consider the degree to which they are offset by the costs
associated with a relationship. Social exchange theory suggests that people
tend to evaluate social situations. In the context of a relationship, a person
will compare the costs and benefits of beginning or continuing that relationship.
Imagine, for example, that Karen is considering a date with Dave, who
is kind, attractive, and financially stable but fifteen years older. Karen may
decide that this relationship is not worth pursuing because of the disapproval
of her mother and father, who believe strongly that their daughter
should be dating a man her own age. Karen’s decision will be influenced by
how much she values the approval of her parents and by whether she has
dating alternatives available.
A third model of attraction, equity theory, extends social exchange theory.
This approach suggests that it is essential to take into account how both
parties involved in a relationship assess the costs and benefits. When each
person believes that his or her own ratio of costs to benefits is fair (or equitable),
then attraction between the two tends to be promoted. On the other
hand, a relationship may be placed in jeopardy if one person thinks that the
time, effort, and other resources being invested are justified, while the other
person does not feel that way.
Considering the rewards involved in the process of interpersonal attraction
provides a useful model but one that is rather general. To understand
attraction fully, one must look more specifically at what people find rewarding
in relationships. Social psychological research has established some definite
principles governing attraction that can be applied within the reward
framework.
major implication here is that it is possible to like someone not so much because
of that person himself or herself but rather as a consequence of that
person’s merely being part of a rewarding situation; positive feelings toward
the experience itself get transferred to that other person. (It also follows
that a person associated with something unpleasant will tend to be disliked.)
This is called indirect reinforcement.
For example, in one experiment done during the summer, people who
evaluated new acquaintances in a cool and comfortable room liked them
better than when in a hot and uncomfortable room. In another, similar,
study subjects rating photographs of strangers gave more favorable evaluations
when in a nicely furnished room than when they were in a dirty room
with shabby furniture. These findings provide some insight into why married
couples may find that their relationship benefits from a weekend trip
away from the children or a romantic dinner at a favorite restaurant; the
pleasant event enhances their feelings for each other.
There are other models of interpersonal attraction that involve the notion
of rewards but consider the degree to which they are offset by the costs
associated with a relationship. Social exchange theory suggests that people
tend to evaluate social situations. In the context of a relationship, a person
will compare the costs and benefits of beginning or continuing that relationship.
Imagine, for example, that Karen is considering a date with Dave, who
is kind, attractive, and financially stable but fifteen years older. Karen may
decide that this relationship is not worth pursuing because of the disapproval
of her mother and father, who believe strongly that their daughter
should be dating a man her own age. Karen’s decision will be influenced by
how much she values the approval of her parents and by whether she has
dating alternatives available.
A third model of attraction, equity theory, extends social exchange theory.
This approach suggests that it is essential to take into account how both
parties involved in a relationship assess the costs and benefits. When each
person believes that his or her own ratio of costs to benefits is fair (or equitable),
then attraction between the two tends to be promoted. On the other
hand, a relationship may be placed in jeopardy if one person thinks that the
time, effort, and other resources being invested are justified, while the other
person does not feel that way.
Considering the rewards involved in the process of interpersonal attraction
provides a useful model but one that is rather general. To understand
attraction fully, one must look more specifically at what people find rewarding
in relationships. Social psychological research has established some definite
principles governing attraction that can be applied within the reward
framework.
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