AFRICAN AMERICAN YOUTH

AFRICAN AMERICAN YOUTH
Most African American youth come from families that
have been in the United States for generations, as
descendants of slaves. In the early and mid-20th cen-
tury, this history created survival responses to dis-
crimination that encouraged self-control and
subjugation as a means of avoiding violent confronta-
tions with European Americans. With recent structural
changes, such as desegregation and anti-discrimina-
tion laws, the experiences of African American youth
are changing and they are developing healthier senses
of self. In more recent history, Blacks from Africa and
the Caribbean have also immigrated to the United
States. These groups also deal with the legacy of dis-
crimination but additionally face issues relevant to
immigrants. Although these groups have distinct
experiences, rarely are they separated in the literature,
and most studies treat African American youth as a
homogeneous set.
For African American youth, contextual influences
are the strongest in affecting adolescent adjustment,
including peer relationships, school and neighborhood
interactions, and parental influence and involvement.
African American youth are well supported by their
families, as indicated by strong bonds with extended
family, favorable attitudes toward the elderly, adapt-
able familial roles, and a strong religious and spiritual
orientation. Difficulties for African American youth
arise in the context of acculturative stress and present
themselves in higher arrest and incarceration rates
than for other ethnic groups, increases in high school
drop-out rates for inner-city youth, and recent
increases in suicide rates. It is important to remember
that many of these characteristics are related to SES
and that African Americans living in poverty have
very different life experiences than those with higher
levels of education and financial means.
HISPANIC YOUTH
The category Hispanic is defined by the U.S. Census
Bureau as those people who are of Cuban, Mexican,
Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other
Spanish culture or origin regardless of race. Census
data from 2002 show that Mexican Americans are the
largest of the subgroups, constituting 65% of all
Hispanics, followed by Puerto Ricans at 10% and then
Cubans at 4%. Consequently, most literature on
Hispanic youth focuses on one of these three groups.
Generally, for Hispanic youth, level of acculturation
has been shown to influence successful growth and
development. As generational status increases, there is
less of a buffering effect, likely because of increased
interactions outside of their community and an
increased likelihood of experiencing racism and con-
flict between familial value systems and mainstream
culture. Success for Hispanic youth is built on a deli-
cate balance between developing a healthy sense of
ethnic identity and developing skills that help the
youth to navigate the outside world.
Psychological functioning ofHispanic youth has been
the topic of many researchers’ work. Studies on
resiliency have found that peer influence and ethnic pride
are related to academic achievement.Drop-out and reten-
tion rates have also been examined in Latino youth.
Although girls fare better than their male counterparts,
drop-out rates among urban Latino youth can be as high
as 50%. It is important that future research be aimed at
increasing the school retention of Hispanic youth